Theory Of European Integration Politics Essay

Theory Of European Integration Politics Essay Many theories on European integration have emerged after the terrible events of World War II. They tried to explain how political actors in distinct national settings will shift their loyalties, expectations and political activities in order to unify and create a stable political and economic alliance throughout the Europe. (Haas, Ernst B., 1968: The Uniting of Europe. 1950-1957. Stanford: Stanford UP, p. 16). The main theories at that time were Functionalism, Neo-functionalism, Intergovernmentalism, Liberal Intergovernmentalism and Federalism. In this essay most competing theories revolving around the process of European Integration will be compared. They are the Liberal Intergovernmental approach created by Andrew Moravcsik and Neo-Functionalism was developed by Earns Haas. I agree with Liberal Intergovernmental theory of European integration as it provides a more useful utility to explain the creation of the community and how various actors behave within the European system compar ed to Neo-Functional approach. LI is also better, because it has achieved this dominant status due to its theoretical soundness, empirical power, and utility as a foundation for synthesis with other explanations regarding regional and European Integration (Moravcsik, Schimmelfennig 2009: 67). This statement will be further developed by contrasting main assumptions of these theories, as well as observing causal relationships in political facts in case of the Single European Act (SEA) which happened in the process of establishing a union amongst European countries (Sabine, George H., 1968: A history of political theory. London: Harrap, p. V). The largest discourse in theorising European Integration happened around two theories Neo-functionalism and Liberal Intergovernmentalism. Neo-functionalism was created in the mid-1950s. The main thinker was Earns Haas who developed this theory in his work The Uniting of Europe: Political, Social and Economic Forces 1950-1957 (Cini 2004, p. 81). He tried to find out how regional cooperation and development were linked to the integration in Latin America and Europe. However later, the theory became associated with the European Union, since economic and political integration was much more developed there, compared to Latin America (Cini 2004, p.83). Before the creation of Intergovernmentalism, Neo-functionalism (a pluralist theory) seemed to provide a better explanation of the European Integration (EI). It explained how and why they (states) voluntarily mingle, merge and mix with their neighbours so as to lose the factual attributes of sovereignty while acquiring new techniques for resolving con ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ict between themselves (Haas 1970: 610). The most prominent ideas of neo-functionalists were the spillover effects which push the EI, as nation states are interdependent. They also stressed importance of non-state actors in international politics. Haas argued, that they way in which countries behave on international arena was a direct outcome of a pluralistic political process. Other actors, like institutions within the state and interest groups influenced decisions of the government. This fact shaped the way the states behave, thus shaped the European Integration. Neo-functionalists often use activities of multinational corporations to show how various non-governmental actors shape international politics. But the prime example to prove the assumption, that non-state actors are very important in EI is the European Commission. As it was considered to be in unique position it is a non-state actor, it can shape both international and domestic pressures on governments of European states to promote the EI, despite the fact that some governments might not look forward to collaborate. This way Neo-Functionalism places major emphasis on the role of non-governmental actors; governments are important actors in the process as well. Neo-Functionalism view spillover as a driving force of the EI. Broad political integration derives from economic integration between the states which is the cause of close cooperation in particular economic policy sector. This process can be understood by a concept of spillover, as explained by Lindberg (1963: 10): In its most general formulation, spillover refers to a situation in which a given action, related to a speci ¬Ã‚ c goal, creates a situation in which the original goal can be assured only by taking further actions, which in turn create a further condition and a need for more action, and so forth There are several types of spillovers in NF theory. The main are the political and functional. The functional spillover may be explained as a situation where integration in one economic sector will foster integration in other policy areas. So functional pressures are created for further integration within and beyond that policy area. As a result, economies of nation states will entangle. As integration expands social interests will change towards supranational centre and the need for further European institutionalisation will arise (Rosamond, Ben, 2000: Theories of European Integration. Houndsmills: MacMillan, p. 51-52). As a result of functional spillover, it can be seen that industrial economies are interconnected. So it is not possible to separate one policy area from another. This implies a political spillover which is involved in creating political pressures in order to promote integration in states involved in functional spillover. As soon as one policy area is created, various actors interested in its development will seek ways in which they can have influence at the supranational level. As for example, the development of ECSC (European Coal and Steel Community) will make consumer groups, trade unions and lobbysts from coal and steel communities to switch from national governments to the new supranational agency the High Authority. Later on actors will appreciate the benefits opened to them as a result of the integration. They will further advocate integration to eliminate barriers imposed by governments prior to integration. the process of community formation is dominated by nationally constituted groups with speci ¬Ã‚  c interests and aims, willing and able to adjust their aspirations by turning to supranational means when this course appears pro ¬Ã‚ table(Haas 1966: xxxiv). Based on Hoffmanns work, which criticised Neo-functionalism, Andrew Moravcsik created an improved version of the integration process explanation. To prove that the new Liberal Intergovernmental approach is better it is important to fully understand its theoretical basis. Liberal Intergovernmental (LI) theory tries to explain the process of European Integration. It starts by recognising political actors and trying to find which roles did they take during the Integration. In order to agree or disagree with the theory it is essential to understand who the actors are and what they do. LI theory emphasises the national governments being the most important actors. I agree with this point, as I find that the state governments are the main drivers of integration compared to supranational actors and institutions as Neo-functionalism argues. States achieve their goals through intergovernmental bargaining. But they only negotiate, if their national interest is concerned. It may be observed that this way national governments are the most powerful drivers of the European Integration, as they control the pace and deepness of unification with other countries. The reason for the power lies in the nature of the state government. All of the members are democratically elected, which makes them unique in the integration process. The governments also possess legal sovereignty. Taking into account facts and assumptions of Liberal Intergovernmentalism it could be seen that this explanation of integration process is more elucidating. Liberal Intergovernmentalism implies that states are rational. It means that the state government will closely examine all the possible options given in any question which concerns their national interest. Then it chooses the one which maximises profit for the state, thus satisfying the national interest. In The Choice for Europe (1998), Moravcsik explains how governments operate together. It is based on two assumptions of LI theory: a) states are the most influential actors; b) states are rational in their actions. Firstly, they state what is the most important for their nation (preferences), and then they bargain and negotiate with other governments to achieve a most effective consensus for both. In third place, they order the existent supranational institutions or create new ones in order to ensure that their decisions will be implemented and secured afterwards. (Moravcsik / Schimmelpfennig p.70f) It may be seen that LI theorists do not deny the existence of other actors institutions, bodies and interest groups (for example civil servants and officials within the state) in their explanation of integration. These actors could also affect the process and decisions made, but their influence is rather marginal in the creation of global international system. Neo-Functionalist theory emphasises how important the role of them are, but these national and supranational actors do not play a significant role in European Integration as they are merely used by national governments only when the latter pursue national interest.

Does the Art of Science Vitiate the Science of Art? Essay

INTRODUCTION   Why there would be ripples in the modern art world, if a 17th century artist is found to have used an instrument to perfect his art? It all started when David Hockney, a British artist, started his research on artists, mainly of the Renaissance Period, when observed some ‘suspicious details’ in the works of Johannes Vermeer (1632-1675), an artist of Holland, who, like many of his contemporaries had failed to make his rank in his time and thus struggled all along, before getting recognized and appreciated posthumously. The fact that he could master only 30 paintings indicates about the roadblocks he had before him.   However, he has been ‘rediscovered’ presently and his works are now lauded for its wonderful details, which are found to be one up in his time, mainly for their precision. The Situation It was that precision, which caught the fancy of David the researcher. Stunned by the perfect perspectives and light distortions in Vermeer’s paintings. David delved deep into matter and came out with a conclusion that Vermeer might have used a refracting device, such as a ‘Camera Obscura’, to achieve that incredible degree of precision in the details in his paintings. Camera Obscura It is one of the early optical instruments, presumed to have been invented in the late Renaissance period, around the time Galileo, the inventor of Telescope. However, Hockney`s new evidence seems to suggest that the usage of magnifying tools like Camera Obscura were there well before that. That’s a good finding. The Art of Science Camera Obscura is a light-tight box with a small whole on one side, through which an image of an outside object can be projected onto a wall or piece of paper. The resulting image will be projected upside down. This is due to the fact that the reflected rays of light, which enter the box, do not spread out but traverse and reorganize, before reappearing as an upside down reflection. The size of the pinhole determines the sharpness of the reflected image, as well as the degree of diffraction and the level of light sensitivity. The narrower the passage of light, the lesser sensitive is the image. Moreover, narrow holes result in sharper projections and a better image resolution – since the resulting circle of confusion, the distortion of bright areas caused by the shape of the pinhole, will be smaller. This situation also calls to define the resultant diffraction from a particularly small pinhole, which causes a rather unfocused projection of the image. This phenomenon can be explained by the wave theory of light, which states that light behaves like a wave. Diffraction, in this case, refers to the dispersion of waves (light) when passing through the pinhole, which produces a hologram effect. The smaller and closer to the lights’ wavelength the hole is, larger the proportion is in the diffraction pattern, compared to a larger opening. To further increase the brightness and focus of the image, artists started to use a lens instead of the pinhole. It is really heartening to imagine that some of the artists of the Renaissance Period experimented on such nuances of diffraction towards gaining unbelievably realistic, almost photographic paintings. Vermeer’s Endeavor Situations indeed indicate that Vermeer might have used a Camera Obscura to enhance his paintings. Firstly, Vermeer didn’t seem to have used any sort of sketches or preparatory drawings while on his way towards producing paintings with incredibly realistic details and perspective in them. That couldn’t have happened if such works were done manually. His work, â€Å"Soldier and Laughing Girl†, where an amazingly detailed map can be seen hanging on the wall in the background, consolidates this assumption – even after zooming, the map seems to be an exact replication of a map at the time. How could he achieve such precision at one go, if he didn’t use any instrument? Another indication is the presence of bright, round reflections on reflective surfaces. Almost all the reflections in Vermeer’s paintings have an unusually circular shape. We now believe that these round reflections are circles of confusion, which are caused by the imperfection of the lens through which the image is reflected or can occur when the lens is not focused. Such unusually round reflections are distortions of bright areas caused by the shape of the pinhole of the Camera Obscura. One of the most famous examples of such a circle of confusion is the reflection in the girl’s earring in Vermeer`s masterpiece â€Å"The girl with the pearl earring.† Thirdly most of his paintings seem to take place in the same room. A reason for this could have been the size and weight of the apparatus. It might have been too laborious and time consuming to move the optic device in those days. Furthermore, in his painting â€Å"The Music Lesson†, there is a mirror on top of the piano, which reflects the leg of an object, which could have been a Camera Obscura. Science of Art Even though the indications point towards Vermeer’s using of optical instruments, that should be seen as a bold, and nonetheless creative endeavor, which aligns with the intellectual movements of that period – considering the treatise and texts about optics circulated then – only substantiates Vermeer’s contemporary approach towards his work, when people of 17th century had been exploring the possibilities of mirrors and lenses – it was then, even with low quality lenses and bad resolution, Vermeer and his colleagues would have been able to create incredibly detailed pictures. Lastly, the use of such instrument at that time could not have lessened the value of the art. It is assumed, that the painters using a Camera Obscura, merely used the projection of the image as a foundation, a sketch, on which they would paint. Since the projection of the image would be like a movie in color and every movement of the object would distort the artist drawing, only certain features of the object could be taken down on paper, leaving the rest to be done by the artist him/herself. CONCLUSION Artists of 17th century could not be totally dependent on Camera Obscura – they had to add in their own imagination, creativity and hard, manual labor. Attaining precision was just a part of their whole aim, and the attempt to achieve that by using an instrument cannot be hyped as something demeaning in the approach of the artists who did that. It is clear that those artists simply used Camera Obscura to increase precision or shorten the sketching time. There is nothing more in this useless debate, as the choice and combination of colors, the brush strokes, the shading, the technique and much more that take to make a great image, were done all by the artists themselves. To quote Hockney – â€Å"The lens can’t draw a line, only the hand can do that†, would be enough to block this controversy for once and all. Therefore this has nothing to do with any useless debate on the ethical violation of the creative processes involved in painting. It could have been so, if Vermeer did his works with blood, or stole or plagiarize someone else’s idea.

Euthanasi The Procedure Of Euthanasia - 890 Words

Euthanasia is generally misled in correlation to assisted physician suicide in which a person wants to end their suffering because of unbearable pain that they are experiencing but unable to function on doing so and no more hopes besides dying peacefully. Dees starts a complex process through a five steps articulation of the implementation of Euthanasia for the patient who is undergoing the process in which all five steps is within the patient’s rights and their dignity for their advance directive in partaking the procedure of Euthanasia. The idea of this five method is not to favor everyone and grant their wish on ending their life, but this process will be made based on the information they gathered from the patient, family or relatives, and seeking another consultation from another physician about the illness. Like the first process, initiation of sharing views, and values, whereas before they were diagnosed as terminally ill, they already made a choice of ending their life , so they will not struggle and become burdens to their loved ones. Moreover, Dees states in her article that due to this approach and scheme, patients request of ending their life must go through a deep research and analysis if there is no other solution for their illness. For future research, Dees article will be useful in determining of granting and helping on compromising patient’s request. If there is no alternative way to alleviate the suffering of a terminal patient, then the only choice is

Donner Company (Case Analysis) - 1344 Words

Donner Company started its operations in 1985 and developed specialized capability in manufacturing circuit boards for experimental devices and for pilot production runs. The company uses â€Å"Solder mask over Bare Copper† (SMOBC) technology which is a popular technology for denser circuit patterns and more reliable final product. Automated processes as well as manual processes are used to perform medium-duty, short-cycle, repetitive tasks. They promise a delivery within three weeks for orders less than 1000 boards and 5 weeks for larger orders. While reviewing the company’s position prior to planning 1988 operations, Edward Plummer, President of the company found that the firm was experiencing production delays due to serious problems in†¦show more content†¦However, time efficiency or the run-time is not the correct measure for optimal order scheduling as this doesn’t take capacity into account. Assuming orders for the month of September’87, if we run all the orders on the manual machine, it takes 550.8 hours for drilling. On the other hand, if we schedule all the orders on CNC machine, it will take 432 hours. However, we argue that we can achieve higher productivity by operating both the machines in parallel, as drilling is our bottleneck resource. The optimal solution will be reached when we use both the machines such that both operate for the same duration of time i.e. equal utilization. This can be achieved when we start scheduling the orders with the least order size on manual machine an d those with large order sizes on the CNC machine. Then we look at the remaining orders and repeat the same decision process. This process is repeated until the busy time for both the machines are equal. When we schedule the orders for September in the above manner, the CNC machine gets the four largest orders and has run-time of 157 hours, whereas, the rest of the orders are executed on the manual machines which have run time of 160 hours each. Thus, we can process the entire set of orders with the bottleneck resources being busy for 160 hours each (in contrast with 196 hours of CNC taken in the case to service same set of orders). If we assume steady state i.e. order size histogram will follow a similar pattern,Show MoreRelatedDonner Company Case Analysis1486 Words   |  6 PagesZachary Harris (#112177795) 11.09.2010 Donner Company FIT Analysis I. 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